Chapter summary image Many of us remember the spectacular fireworks of the 2008 Olympic opening ceremonies. Parts of the display were reportedly enhanced with computer graphics.

How is memory organized?

  • There are three different types of memory:sensory memory, working memory, and long term memory.
  • According to the information-processing model, our brains encode information, store it as a memory, and retrieve it when we need to remember it.

What are the characteristics of sensory, working, and long-term memory?

  • Sensory memory consists of sights, sounds, smells, and other information that the senses transmit to the corresponding sensory cortices in the brain. Sensory memories last for no more than a few seconds.
  • Working memory contains memories that we can access immediately. Images, sounds, and meanings can all be encoded in working memory.
  • Long-term memory includes both implicit and explicit memories. Meaningful or emotional information is often encoded into long- term memory. Long-term memories can last a lifetime but can be difficult to retrieve.

How are memories encoded, stored, and retrieved?

  • Attention enables us to consciously or unconsciously encode memories.
  • We use rehearsal, mnemonics, and other organizational strategies to store memories.
  • The frontal lobe, hippocampus, basal ganglia, and cerebellum are active in memory encoding and storage.
  • Retrieval cues such as the context effect help us move long- term memories into working memory, where stored information is “at the ready."

What are the weaknesses and limitations of memory?

  • Stress can inhibit memory storage and recall.
  • Brain damage can lead to retrograde and anterograde amnesia.
  • Memories are easily forgotten and prone to distortion, and they can persist even when we try to forget them.