12 Memory

Many of us remember the spectacular fireworks of the 2008 Olympic opening ceremonies. Parts of the display were reportedly enhanced with computer graphics.

How is memory organized?

• There are three different types of memory:sensory memory, working memory, and long term memory.
• According to the information-processing model, our brains encode information, store it as a memory, and retrieve it when we need to remember it.

What are the characteristics of sensory, working, and long-term memory?

• Sensory memory consists of sights, sounds, smells, and other information that the senses transmit to the corresponding sensory cortices in the brain. Sensory memories last for no more than a few seconds.
• Working memory contains memories that we can access immediately. Images, sounds, and meanings can all be encoded in working memory.
• Long-term memory includes both implicit and explicit memories. Meaningful or emotional information is often encoded into long- term memory. Long-term memories can last a lifetime but can be difficult to retrieve.

How are memories encoded, stored, and retrieved?

• Attention enables us to consciously or unconsciously encode memories.
• We use rehearsal, mnemonics, and other organizational strategies to store memories.
• The frontal lobe, hippocampus, basal ganglia, and cerebellum are active in memory encoding and storage.
• Retrieval cues such as the context effect help us move long- term memories into working memory, where stored information is “at the ready."

What are the weaknesses and limitations of memory?

• Stress can inhibit memory storage and recall.
• Brain damage can lead to retrograde and anterograde amnesia.
• Memories are easily forgotten and prone to distortion, and they can persist even when we try to forget them.