Chapter summary imageThe U.S. went to war against Iraq to overthrow the government of Saddam Hussein and to prevent Iraq from developing nuclear weapons or supplying weapons to terrorist groups.
  • International events are the most important environmental factors affecting foreign and defense policymaking. Although most Americans support an active role for the United States in world affairs, the general public is more cautious about American involvement abroad than are foreign policy leaders in government, the media, business, and academia.

Agenda Building

  • Some issues become important items on the policy agenda because of media coverage of dramatic international events, such as the bombing of Pearl Harbor. Many interest groups also participate in foreign and defense policymaking. The American Jewish community, for example, is concerned about policy toward Israel and the Arab world.
  • Historically, the president has taken the lead in foreign and defense policy matters, but Congress can support or limit the president’s actions. After September 11, President Bush announced a new American policy of preemption and focused the world’s attention on the goal of disarming Iraq. However, as the situation in Iraq worsened and public opinion began to turn against the war, members of Congress spoke out against administration policies and Congressional committees investigated allegations that Halliburton and other private contractors had overcharged the U.S. government for work performed in Iraq.

Policy Formulation and Adoption

  • The president and Congress share constitutional authority to formulate and adopt foreign and defense policy. The president negotiates treaties, but the Senate must ratify them. The president can request money for foreign aid and defense, but Congress must appropriate the funds. Most often, the president initiates foreign and defense policies, and Congress acts to modify or reject these policies.

Policy Implementation and Evaluation

  • The executive branch is primarily responsible for the implementation of foreign policy. The Department of State, Department of Defense, and CIA are prominently involved, but many other agencies and departments play a role as well. The Department of Agriculture, for example, promotes the sale of American agricultural products abroad.
  • In general, foreign and defense policies are probably more difficult to evaluate than policies in other areas, as it is not always possible to determine whether policy goals have been met. Congress monitors expenditures, but often limits its policy oversight to high-profile issues, such as the War in Iraq. Other efforts at evaluation take place in the executive branch, in academia, and by the news media.

Key Terms

Bipartisanship

the close cooperation and general agreement between the two major political parties in dealing with foreign policy matters

Conventional Forces

non-nuclear forces

Democratic Peace

the concept that democracies do not wage war against other democracies

Deterrence

the ability of a nation to prevent an attack against itself or its allies by threat of massive retaliation

Diplomacy

the process by which nations carry on political relations with each other

Diplomatic Relations

a system of official contacts between two nations in which the countries exchange ambassadors and other diplomatic personnel and operate embassies in each other’s country

First-Strike Capability

the capacity of a nation to launch an initial nuclear assault sufficient to cripple an adversary’s ability to retaliate

Global Warming Treaty

an international agreement to reduce the worldwide emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

the total value of goods and services produced by a nation’s economy in a year, excluding transactions with foreign countries

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

the international organization created to promote economic stability worldwide

Joint Chiefs of Staff

a military advisory body that is composed of the chiefs of staff of the U.S. Army and Air Force, the chief of naval operations, and sometimes the commandant of the Marine Corps

Massive Retaliation

the concept that the United States will strike back against an aggressor with overwhelming force

Military Preemption

the defense policy that declares that the United States will attack hostile nations or groups that represent a potential threat to the security of the United States

Mutual Assured Destruction (Mad)

the belief that the United States and the Soviet Union would be deterred from launching a nuclear assault against each other for fear of being destroyed in a general nuclear war

Nation-State

a political community occupying a definite territory and having an organized government

Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs)

international organizations committed to the promotion of a particular set of issues

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

an international accord among the United States, Mexico, and Canada to lower trade barriers among the three nations

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

a regional military alliance consisting of the United States, Canada, and most of the European democracies

Postindustrial Societies

nations whose economies are increasingly based on services, research, and information rather than heavy industry

Second-Strike Capability

the capacity of a nation to absorb an initial nuclear attack and retain sufficient nuclear firepower to inflict unacceptable damage on its adversary

Strategic Forces

nuclear forces

Tariff

a tax levied on imported goods

United Nations (UN)

an international organization founded in 1945 as a diplomatic forum to resolve conflicts among the world’s nations

World Trade Organization (WTO)

an international organization that administers trade laws and provides a forum for settling trade disputes among nations

Discussion Questions

1. Should the United States refrain from military action if the United Nations Security Council does not grant approval? Is the UN still a useful forum for international dispute resolution?

2. What are the basic goals of U.S. foreign policy? What are the means through which the U.S. pursues its foreign policy goals?

3. What was the basis of American isolationism? Was the U.S. consistent in its policy of isolationism (i.e., was the U.S. isolationist toward all nations)?

4. What are the major concerns regarding nuclear weapons in the 21st century?

5. Does Congress or the president play the larger role in American foreign and defense policymaking? What constitutional authority does each branch possess?

Interactive Activity

Comparative: Comparing Foreign and Security Policy

Today's world community consists of almost 200 recognized independent countries. In the past, some countries that were geographically isolated were able to get along without worrying much about the world around them, but that is no longer the case for any country. For better or worse, the world has become interconnected and interdependent. In this comparative activity, you will compare U.S. foreign and security policy with the foreign and security policies of several other nations. What are the most important ways in which countries interact with one another? How do countries differ with respect to their policies toward the outside world?

View Comparative Activity

“Talking About American Government” Podcasts

Author Neal Tannahill discusses the most important concepts in this chapter

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